LEADERSHIP THEORIES

GREAT MAN THEORY

The Great Man theory assumes that the traits of leadership are intrinsic. Great man theory assumes that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership. Earlier leadership was considered as a quality associated mostly with the males, and therefore the theory was named as the great man theory.

ASSUMPTIONS:

·         Leaders are born and not made.

·         Great leaders will arise when there is a great need.

The great man theory argues that a few people are born with the necessary characteristics to be great. Early research about leadership was based on the study of men who were already considered great leaders and were usually from the aristocracy. Leaders may be well rounded and simultaneously display both instrumental and supportive leadership behavior. Instrumental activities include planning, organizing, and controlling the activities of subordinates to accomplish the organization’s goals. Obtaining and allocating resources, such as people, equipment, materials, funds and space are particularly important. Supportive leadership is socially oriented and allows for participation and consultation from subordinates for decisions that affect them. Men who used both instrumental and supportive leadership behaviors were considered “great men” and supposedly can be effective leaders in any situation. Contrary contemporary thought is that leadership skills can be developed even when they are not inborn. (Marquis and Houston, 2006).

THEORY

During the 19th century, the Great Man Theory of Leadership became very popular. The theory was formulated mainly by analyzing the behaviors of mainly military figures of the time. In the 1800s, authoritative positions were held solely by men and were typically passed on from father to son. Thus, it's not a coincidence that the theory was named "Great Man Theory" as there weren't any women that were given the opportunity to rise when the occasion presented itself. The famous historian, Thomas Carlyle was deeply involved with this Great Man Theory of Leadership and had even stated that the history of this world was basically the combined biographies of these great men. Mr. Thomas Carlyle believed that effective leaders were a package of Godly motivation and the right personality.

Prior to the mid-twentieth century, the great man theory was the predominant theory for understanding leadership. With the rise of the behavioral sciences, the great man theory has been replaced with the notion that leadership is a science, and can be learned. From this perspective, leadership has little to do with hereditary or natural forces.

Cawthorn (1996) suggested that while the concept of nurturing leadership traits among anyone aspiring to positions of leadership is attractive, this concept denies the reality that not all individuals are born with equal talents and abilities.

This theory was developed from an early research which included the study of great leaders. The early leaders came from the privileged class and held hereditary titles. Very few people from the lower class had the opportunity to take a lead. The Great Man theory was based on the idea that whenever there is a need of leadership, a Great Man would arise and solve the problems. When the Great Man theory was proposed, most of the leaders were males and therefore, the gender issues were not negotiable. Even the researchers were male, which was the reason for the name of the theory being 'Great Man Theory'.

The great man theory of leadership states that some people are born with the necessary attributes that set them apart from others and that these traits are responsible for their assuming positions of power and authority. A leader is a hero who accomplishes goals against all odds for his followers. The theory implies that those in power deserve to be there because of their special endowment. Furthermore, the theory contends that these traits remain stable over time and across different groups. Thus, it suggests that all great leaders share these characteristic regardless of when and where they lived or the precise role in the history they fulfilled.

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TRAIT THEORY

(R. M. Stogdill ,1900 - 1948)

}  Leaders possess certain key personality traits which identify them as natural leaders.

}  Mid-1940s – this theory was the basis of leadership research.

}  Trait theory does not view personality as an integrated whole, does not deal with subordinates, and avoids environmental influences and situational factors.

}  Early work in this area maintained that traits are inherited, but later theories suggesyed that traits could be obtained by experience.

}  Some traits are particularly suited to leadership.

}  People who make good leaders have the right combination of traits.

Broad classification of the 6 categories of traits:

1. Physical characteristics: age, built, height, weight ,bearing

2. Background information: education, social status, experience

3. Intelligence: knowledge , judgment, ability

4. Personality: decisiveness, authoritarianism, extroversion, alertness, aggressiveness, enthusiasm, independence, self confidence

5. Task oriented characteristics: persistence, responsibility, achievement need, initiative

6. Social characteristics : supervisory activity, popularity, prestige, tact, diplomacy

Different traits of a leader in different kind of leadership styles:

Two dimensions of leadership behaviour by Ohio State Leadership:

·         Consideration: behaving in a friendly and supporting way, looking out others’ welfare showing concern, treating others as equals, taking time to listen consulting others on important matters, being willing to accept suggestions, doing personal favours.

·         Initiating structure : the way leaders structure roles to attain the goals.  It includes assigning tasks, defining procedures, setting deadlines, maintaining standards, suggesting new approaches and coordinating activities.

3 types of leadership behaviours that marked the difference between effective and ineffective leaders according to University of Michigan

Task-oriented behaviour: planning, scheduling and coordinating activities

Relationship-oriented behaviour: acting friendly and considerate, showing trust and confidence, expressing appreciation, and providing recognition.

Participative leadership :uses group meetings to enlist associate participation in decision making, improve communications, promote cooperation and facilitate conflict resolution.

21     Qualities of a leader by Maxwell

Charisma, commitment, communication, competence, courage, discernment, focus, generosity, initiative, listening, passion, positive attitude, problem solving, relationships, responsibility, security, self-discipline, servanthood, teachability, and Vision

Strengths/Advantages of Trait Theory

·    It is naturally pleasing theory.

·    It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory.

·    It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be assessed.

·    It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader element in the leadership process.

Limitations of trait theory:

·         Mutually exclusive

·         Overlap between categories or definitions of the characteristics

·         It is not clear which traits is important, which traits needed to acquire leadership and which trait are needed to maintain it.

·         Doesn’t view personality as an integrated whole and avoids environmental influences and situational factors.

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BEHAVIORAL THEORY

Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger formulates theories concerning the factors that increased human motivation and satisfaction which were later to become the foundations of the human relations movement in behavior management. In 1924, a research team launched an experiment at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois. This is where behavioral theory started

Behavioral Theory focuses on developing leadership and how leaders behave rather than looking for inborn traits. Behavioral theory of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities it is a big leap from Trait Theory, in that it assumes that leadership capability can be learned, rather than being inherent. This idea enjoins that leaders learn to lead in the course of their lives. Behavioral theorists believe that anyone can learn how to lead with the proper education and training. A behavioral theory is relatively easy to develop, as you simply assess both leadership success and the actions of leaders. With a large enough study, you can then correlate statistically significant behaviors with success. You can also identify behaviors which contribute to failure, thus adding a second layer of understanding. The behavior of effective leaders is different than the behavior of ineffective leaders.

In the 1930s, Kurt Lewin developed a framework based on a leader's behavior. He argued that there are three types of leaders:

1.       Autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting their teams. This style of leadership is considered appropriate when decisions need to be made quickly, when there's no need for input, and when team agreement isn't necessary for a successful outcome.

2.       Democratic leaders allow the team to provide input before making a decision, although the degree of input can vary from leader to leader. This style is important when team agreement matters, but it can be difficult to manage when there are lots of different perspectives and ideas.

3.       Laissez-faire leaders don't interfere; they allow people within the team to make many of the decisions. This works well when the team is highly capable, is motivated, and doesn't need close supervision. However, this behavior can arise because the leader is lazy or distracted. This is where this approach can fail.

There are two important Behavioral studies

Ohio State University (1940s)

As leadership studies that were aimed at identifying the appropriate traits didn't yield any conclusive results, a group of people from Ohio State University developed a list of 150 statements from their generated responses that included 1,800 hundred statements. The list was designed to measure nine different behavioral leadership dimensions. The resulting questionnaire is now well-known as the LBDQ or the Leaders Behavior Description Questionnaire.

As part of the study, the LBDQ was administered to various groups of individuals ranging from college students and their administrators, private companies including military personnel. One of the primary purposes of the study was to identify common leadership behaviors. After compiling and analyzing the results, the study led to the conclusion that there were two groups of behaviors that were strongly correlated. These were defined as Consideration (People Oriented behavioral Leaders) and Initiating Structure (Task Oriented Leaders).

Task oriented leaders

The task concerned leaders are focusing their behaviours on the organizational structure, the operating procedures (S.O.P.) and they like to keep control. Task-oriented leaders are still concern with their staff motivation; however it's not their main concern. They will favor behaviours that are in line with:

• Initiating
• Organizing
• Clarifying
• Information Gathering

People oriented leaders

The people oriented leaders are focusing their behaviours on ensuring that the inner needs of the people are satisfied. Thus they will seek to motivate their staff through emphasizing the human relation. People oriented leaders still focus on the task and the results; they just achieve them through different means. Leaders with a people focus will have behaviours that are in line with:

·         Encouraging

·         Observing

·         Listening

·         Coaching and Mentoring

University of Michigan (1950s)

Lead by the famous organizational psychologist, Dr. Rensis Likert, the leadership studies at the University of Michigan identified three characteristics of effective leadership; two of which were previously observed in studies that had been conducted at Ohio State University. The study showed that task- and relationship-oriented behaviors weren't of major significance within the world of organizational psychology. However it was the third observation that introduced a new concept, one of participative leadership!

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SITUATIONAL THEORY

It was developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth H.  Blanchard. The fundamental underpinning of the situational leadership theory is that there is no single "best" style of leadership. Effective leadership is task-relevant, and the most successful leaders are those that adapt their leadership style to the maturity of the individual or group they are attempting to lead or influence. Effective leadership varies, not only with the person or group that is being influenced, but it also depends on the task, job or function that needs to be accomplished. It rests on two fundamental concepts; leadership style and the individual or group's maturity level.

4 LEADERSHIP STYLES

1.       Telling (S1) – Leaders tell their people exactly what to do, and how to do it.

2.       Selling (S2) – Leaders still provide information and direction, but there's more communication with followers. Leaders "sell" their message to get the team on board.

3.       Participating (S3) – Leaders focus more on the relationship and less on direction. The leader works with the team, and shares decision-making responsibilities.

4.       Delegating (S4) – Leaders pass most of the responsibility onto the follower or group. The leaders still monitor progress, but they're less involved in decisions.

* As you can see, styles S1 and S2 are focused on getting the task done. Styles S3 and S4 are more concerned with developing team members' abilities to work independently.

4 MATURITY LEVELS

1.       M1 – People at this level of maturity are at the bottom level of the scale. They lack the knowledge, skills, or confidence to work on their own, and they often need to be pushed to take the task on.

2.       M2 – At this level, followers might be willing to work on the task, but they still don't have the skills to do it successfully.

3.       M3 – Here, followers are ready and willing to help with the task. They have more skills than the M2 group, but they're still not confident in their abilities.

4.       M4 – These followers are able to work on their own. They have high confidence and strong skills, and they're committed to the task.

The examples below show the most appropriate leadership style according to maturity levels.

> M1 = S1 – If the employee has a low level of skills, knowledge and competence, it is probably advantageous to make use of the leadership style S1. This could possibly be the case when a new and untrained employee joins the organization, or if tasks of trained personnel change radically.

> M2 = S2 – In this stage, the follower is more familiar with his/her tasks, but is perhaps beginning to lose motivation. In this situation S2 might be the right leadership style, where leaders should try to convince followers about the importance of the tasks, and why the followers should try to develop the required skills.

> M3 = S3 – In this stage, where the competence followers is high, leaders could use the S3 leadership style. Leaders could act as consultants advising the followers on how to get the job done. Likewise, followers with this high level of maturity may get motivated by being involved in decision making and by being enabled to shape the content of his/her tasks.

> M4 = S4 – In this last stage of maturity, the employee can perform his duties independently, and is very committed in accomplishing tasks. In this situation leaders could feasibly adopt the S4 leadership style, where followers are allowed to conduct and accomplish tasks independently, and without much supervision by leaders.

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CONTINGENCY THEORY

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory shows the relationship between the leader’s orientation or style and group performance under differing situational conditions.  The theory is based on determining the orientation of the leader (relationship or task), the elements of the situation (leader-member relations, task structure, and leader position power), and the leader orientation that was found to be most effective as the situation changed from low to moderate to high control. Fiedler found that task oriented leaders were more effective in low and moderate control situations and relationship oriented managers were more effective in moderate control situations.

Leader’s trait

In order to assess the attitudes of the leader, Fiedler developed the ‘least preferred co-worker’ (LPC) scale in which the leaders are asked about the person with whom they least like to work. The scale is a questionnaire consisting of 16 items used to reflect a leader’s underlying disposition toward others. The items in the LPC scale are pleasant / unpleasant, friendly / unfriendly, rejecting / accepting, unenthusiastic / enthusiastic, tense / relaxed, cold / warm, helpful / frustrating, cooperative / uncooperative, supportive / hostile, quarrelsome / harmonious, efficient / inefficient, gloomy / cheerful, distant / close, boring / interesting, self-assured / hesitant, open / guarded. Each item in the scale is given a single ranking of between one and eight points, with eight points indicating the most favorable rating.

Situational factor

According to Fiedler, a leader’s behavior is dependent upon the favorability of the leadership situation. Three factors work together to determine how favorable a situation is to a leader. These are:

Leader-member relations - The degree to which the leaders is trusted and liked by the group members, and the willingness of the group members to follow the leader’s guidance

Task structure - The degree, to which the group’s task has been described as structured or unstructured, has been clearly defined and the extent to which it can be carried out by detailed instructions

Position power - The power of the leader by virtue of the organizational position and the degree to which the leader can exercise authority on group members in order to comply with and accept his direction and leadership.

The leader’s effectiveness is determined by the interaction of the leader’s style of behavior and the favorableness of the situational characteristics. The most favorable situation is when leader-member relations are good, the task is highly structured, and the leader has a strong position power.

Fiedler also suggested that leaders may act differently in different situations. Relationship-oriented leaders generally display task-oriented behaviors under highly favorable situations and display relationship-oriented behaviors under unfavorable intermediate favorable situations. Similarly, task-oriented leaders frequently display task-oriented in unfavorable or intermediate favorable situations but display relationship-oriented behaviors in favorable situations.

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PATH-GOAL THEORY

The Path-Goal Theory of Robert House says that a leader can affect the performance, satisfaction, and motivation of a group by:

Ø  offering rewards for achieving performance goals,

Ø  clarifying paths towards these goals and

Ø  removing obstacles to performance.

However, whether leadership behavior can do so effectively also depends on situational factors.

According to House, there are four different types of leadership styles depending on the situation:

1.       Directive Leadership: Telling followers what needs to be done and giving appropriate guidance along the way. This includes giving them schedules of specific work to be done at specific times. Rewards may also be increased as needed and role ambiguity decreased (by telling them what they should be doing).

2.       Supportive Leadership: Considering the needs of the follower, showing concern for their welfare and creating a friendly working environment. This includes increasing the follower's self-esteem and making the job more interesting. This approach is best when the work is stressful, boring or hazardous.

3.       Participative Leadership: Consulting with followers and taking their ideas into account when making decisions and taking particular actions. This approach is best when the followers are expert and their advice is both needed and they expect to be able to give it.

4.       Achievement-oriented Leadership: The leader sets high goals and expects subordinates to have high-level performance. The leader shows faith in the capabilities of the follower to succeed. This approach is best when the task is complex.

The Situational Factors of the Path-Goal Theory are:

I.                    Subordinates’ Personality:

a.       Locus of Control (A participative leader is suitable for subordinates with internal locus of control; A directive leader is suitable for subordinates with external locus of control)

b.       Self-perceived ability (Subordinates who perceive themselves as having high ability do not like directive leadership)

II.                  Characteristics of the environment:

a.       When working on a task that has a high structure, directive leadership is redundant and less effective.

b.       When a highly formal authority system is in place, directive leadership can again reduce workers’ satisfaction.

c.        When subordinates are in a team environment that offers great social support, the supportive leadership style becomes less necessary.

Figure 1 summarizes the path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness. As the figure shows, leader behavior moderated by subordinate characteristics and environmental forces results in subordinate motivation, satisfaction, effort, and performance.          

                                                                                          

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TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Transformational leadership is a type of leadership style that leads to positive changes in those who follow. Transformational leaders are generally energetic, enthusiastic and passionate. Not only are these leaders concerned and involved in the process; they are also focused on helping every member of the group succeed as well.

Transformational leadership theory depends on the concept of collective empowerment, in which all parties are allowed to work together to the best of their ability to achieve a shared goal.  It is important to note that, in the process of this journey, both the leader and the follower are thought to be transformed. The focus of transformational leadership is the promotion of innovation and change (Carroll, 2006). Additionally, according to transformational leadership theory, followers are thought to need a sense of mission. Leaders must inspire in their followers a sense of purpose that goes far beyond the development of interpersonal relationships or an appropriate extrinsic reward for a job well done (Bass and Avolio, 1993). To choose to follow, people must feel that they are endeavoring to do something that is worthwhile and important.

The need for mission and purpose is perhaps particularly true in nursing. Nurses care for people – both ill and well – both as a profession and a service. Though nurses wish to be appropriately reimbursed for their expertise, what typically attracts most of us to the profession is the desire to make a difference in people’s lives. After all, there are many easier ways to make a living, but very few that allow us to contribute very directly to the good of humankind in such an important fashion.

In nursing, the provision of truly high quality care is our goal as well as our responsibility. Transformational nurse leaders may collectivize this goal, giving us the more palpable sense of mission necessary to move us towards its achievement. They can describe the goal of nursing in such a way that it is so meaningful and exciting that it inspires commitment in the people with whom they work (Trofino, 1995). If successful, the goals of the leader and their followers will “become fused, creating unity, wholeness, and a collective purpose” (Barker, 1992, p. 42).

It was within the framework of transformational leadership that the leadership change project was undertaken. Faculties were required to model transformational leadership in such a way that students were collectively empowered to assist staff and community members in the identification of a need for change. Students then worked collaboratively with one another and with their mentors, using their instructors as consultants, towards the development and implementation of a completed change project within the facility.

The History of Transformational Leadership

The concept of transformational leadership was initially introduced by leadership expert and presidential biographer James MacGregor Burns. According to Burns, transformational leadership can be seen when "leaders and followers make each other to advance to a higher level of moral and motivation." Through the strength of their vision and personality, transformational leaders are able to inspire followers to change expectations, perceptions and motivations to work towards common goals.

Later, researcher Bernard M. Bass expanded upon Burns original ideas to develop what is today referred to as Bass’

Transformational Leadership Theory. According to Bass, transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has on followers. Transformational leaders, Bass suggested, garner trust, respect and admiration from their followers.

The Components of Transformational Leadership

Bass also suggested that there were four different components of transformational leadership.

ü  Inspirational Motivation: The foundation of transformational leadership is the promotion of consistent vision, mission, and a set of values to the members. Their vision is so compelling that they know what they want from every interaction. Transformational leaders guide followers by providing them with a sense of meaning and challenge. They work enthusiastically and optimistically to foster the spirit of teamwork and commitment.

ü  Intellectual Stimulation: Such leaders encourage their followers to be innovative and creative. They encourage new ideas from their followers and never criticize them publicly for the mistakes committed by them. The leaders focus on the “what” in problems and do not focus on the blaming part of it. They have no hesitation in discarding an old practice set by them if it is found ineffective.

ü  Idealized Influence: They believe in the philosophy that a leader can influence followers only when he practices what he preaches. The leaders act as role models that followers seek to emulate. Such leaders always win the trust and respect of their followers through their action. They typically place their followers needs over their own, sacrifice their personal gains for them, ad demonstrate high standards of ethical conduct. The use of power by such leaders is aimed at influencing them to strive for the common goals of the organization.

ü  Individualized Consideration: Leaders act as mentors to their followers and reward them for creativity and innovation. The followers are treated differently according to their talents and knowledge. They are empowered to make decisions and are always provided with the needed support to implement their decisions.

Implications of Transformational Leadership Theory

ü  The current environment characterized by uncertainty, global turbulence, and organizational instability calls for transformational leadership to prevail at all levels of the organization. The followers of such leaders demonstrate high levels of job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and engage in organizational citizenship behaviors. With such a devoted workforce, it will definitely be useful to consider making efforts towards developing ways of transforming organization through leadership.

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TRANSACTIONAL THEORY

It focuses on management tasks and trade-offs to meet goals. It is an exchange posture that identifies the needs of followers and provides rewards to meet those needs in exchange for expected performance. It is a contract for mutual benefits that has contingent rewards. The leader or manager is a caretaker who sets goals for employees, focuses on day-to-day operations, and uses management by exception. It is a competitive, task-focused approach that takes place in a hierarchy. It tends to maintain the status quo through policies, procedures routinized performance, self interests, and interpersonal dependence(Bass, 1990; Huber, 2006; Marquis &Huston , 2006; Sullivan & Decker, 2005 Yoder-Wise & Kowalski, 2006)

The transactional style of leadership was first described by Max Weber in 1947 and then by Bernard Bass in 1981. This style is most often used by the managers. It focuses on the basic management process of controlling, organizing, and short-term planning. The famous examples of leaders who have used transactional technique include McCarthy and de Gaulle.

Transactional leadership involves motivating and directing followers primarily through appealing to their own self-interest. The power of transactional leaders comes from their formal authority and responsibility in the organization. The main goal of the follower is to obey the instructions of the leader. The style can also be mentioned as a ‘telling style’.

The leader believes in motivating through a system of rewards and punishment. If a subordinate does what is desired, a reward will follow, and if he does not go as per the wishes of the leader, a punishment will follow. Here, the exchange between leader and follower takes place to achieve routine performance goals.

These exchanges involve four dimensions:

Contingent Rewards: Transactional leaders link the goal to rewards, clarify expectations, provide necessary resources, set mutually agreed upon goals, and provide various kinds of rewards for successful performance. They set  SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and timely) goals for their subordinates.

Active Management by Exception: Transactional leaders actively monitor the work of their subordinates, watch for deviations from rules and standards and taking corrective action to prevent mistakes.

Passive Management by Exception: Transactional leaders intervene only when standards are not met or when the performance is not as per the expectations. They may even use punishment as a response to unacceptable performance.

Laissez-faire: The leader provides an environment where the subordinates get many opportunities to make decisions. The leader himself abdicates responsibilities and avoids making decisions and therefore the group often lacks direction.

Assumptions of Transactional Theory

·      Employees are motivated by reward and punishment.

·      The subordinates have to obey the orders of the superior.

·      The subordinates are not self-motivated. They have to be closely monitored and controlled to get the work done from them.

·        People perform their best when the chain of command is definite and clear.

·      Workers are motivated by rewards and punishments.

·      Obeying the instructions and commands of the leader is the primary goal of the followers.

·        Subordinates need to be carefully monitored to ensure that expectations are met.

·      This theory bases leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Transactional leadership is often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

Implications of Transactional Theory

The transactional leaders overemphasize detailed and short-term goals, and standard rules and procedures. They do not make an effort to enhance followers’ creativity and generation of new ideas. This kind of a leadership style may work well where the organizational problems are simple and clearly defined. Such leaders tend to not reward or ignore ideas that do not fit with existing plans and goals.

The transactional leaders are found to be quite effective in guiding efficiency decisions which are aimed at cutting costs and improving productivity. The transactional leaders tend to be highly directive and action oriented and their relationship with the followers tends to be transitory and not based on emotional bonds.

The theory assumes that subordinates can be motivated by simple rewards. The only ‘transaction’ between the leader and the followers is the money which the followers receive for their compliance and effort.

Conclusion

The transactional style of leadership is viewed as insufficient, but not bad, in developing the maximum leadership potential. It forms as the basis for more mature interactions but care should be taken by leaders not to practice it exclusively, otherwise it will lead to the creation of an environment permeated by position, power, perks, and politics.